Alpha radiation is normally produced from the radioactive decay of heavy nuclides and from certain nuclear reactions. The alpha particle consists of 2 neutrons and 2 protons, so it is essentially the same as the nucleus of a helium atom. Because it has no electrons, the alpha particle has a charge of +2. This positive charge causes the alpha particle to strip electrons from the orbits of atoms in its vicinity. As the alpha particle passes through material, it removes electrons from the orbits of atoms it passes near. Energy is required to remove electrons and the energy of the alpha particle is reduced by each reaction. Eventually the particle will expend its kinetic energy, gain 2 electrons in orbit, and become a helium atom. Because of its strong positive charge and large mass, the alpha particle deposits a large amount of energy in a short distance of travel. This rapid, large deposition of energy limits the penetration of alpha particles. The most energetic alpha particles are stopped by a few centimeters of air or a sheet of paper.

Beta-Minus Radiation

A beta-minus particle is an electron that has been ejected at a high velocity from an unstable nucleus. An electron has a small mass and an electrical charge of -1. Beta particles cause ionization by displacing electrons from atom orbits. The ionization occurs from collisions with orbiting electrons. Each collision removes kinetic energy from the beta particle, causing it to slow down. Eventually the beta particle will be slowed enough to allow it to be captured as an

orbiting electron in an atom. Although more penetrating than the alpha, the beta is relatively easy to stop and has a low power of penetration. Even the most energetic beta radiation can be stopped by a few millimeters of metal.

Positron Radiation

Positively charged electrons are called positrons. Except for the positive charge, they are identical to beta-minus particles and interact with matter in a similar manner. Positrons are very short-lived, however, and quickly are annihilated by interaction with a negatively charged electron, producing two gammas with a combined energy (calculated below) equal to the rest mass of the positive and negative electrons.

Neutron Radiation

Neutrons have no electrical charge. They have nearly the same mass as a proton (a hydrogen atom nucleus). A neutron has hundreds of times more mass than an electron, but 1/4 the mass of an alpha particle. The source of neutrons is primarily nuclear reactions, such as fission, but they may also be produced from the decay of radioactive nuclides. Because of its lack of charge, the neutron is difficult to stop and has a high penetrating power.

Neutrons are attenuated (reduced in energy and numbers) by three major interactions, elastic scatter, inelastic scatter, and absorption. In elastic scatter, a neutron collides with a nucleus and bounces off. This reaction transmits some of the kinetic energy of the neutron to the nucleus of the atom, resulting in the neutron being slowed, and the atom receives some kinetic energy (motion). This process is sometimes referred to as "the billiard ball effect."

As the mass of the nucleus approaches the mass of the neutron, this reaction becomes more effective in slowing the neutron. Hydrogenous material attenuates neutrons most effectively.

In the inelastic scatter reaction, the same neutron/nucleus collision occurs as in elastic scatter. However, in this reaction, the nucleus receives some internal energy as well as kinetic energy. This slows the neutron, but leaves the nucleus in an excited state. When the nucleus decays to its original energy level, it normally emits a gamma ray.

In the absorption reaction, the neutron is actually absorbed into the nucleus of an atom. The neutron is captured, but the atom is left in an excited state. If the nucleus emits one or more gamma rays to reach a stable level, the process is called radiative capture. This reaction occurs at most neutron energy levels, but is more probable at lower energy levels.