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Wheatstone Bridge The Wheatstone bridge, shown in figure 3-1, is often used to measure resistance. These instruments are usually portable because they require only a small, dc source to power the bridge, which is easily obtained from flashlight batteries. In those cases where an external supply voltage is desirable for the operation of the bridge, use the minimum voltage that will give a reliable indication by the galvanometer. Increasing the supply voltage any further results in uncompensated thermal variations and decreased bridge accuracy. If greater bridge sensitivity is needed, use a galvanometer with greater sensitivity. A number of other considerations are involved in the choice of a galvanometer. For example, the galvanometer should not be subjected to false or erratic indications because of external magnetic fields. This requirement dictates the choice of a shielded meter mechanism. It is also desirable to use a critically dampened meter movement to ensure decisive movement of the meter pointer during conditions of bridge unbalance. Thermal agitation sometimes produces voltages that interfere with the balancing of the bridge. For this reason, the Wheatstone bridge usually includes a polarity-reversing switch in the detector circuit. When a measurement is required, note the reading for both positive and negative indications, and figure the average of both readings. With the exception of inaccuracies introduced by thermal variations (caused by excessive supply voltages), the accuracy of the Wheatstone bridge is, otherwise, independent of the value of supply voltages. The units used in calibrating the galvanometer are unimportant to the accuracy of the bridge, since a 0 indication is desired at the balanced condition. Resistance values ranging from 1 ohm to 1 megohm can be measured with an accuracy of approximately 0.1%. However, difficulties are encountered when very high and very low resistances are measured. Resistances less than 1 ohm are difficult to measure accurately because of uncertainty arising from the contact resistance present between the resistor to be measured and the binding posts of the bridge. Measurement of resistances greater than 1 megohm becomes difficult because of two factors: (1) The ratio of standard resistances RA and RB involve a ratio on the order of 1,000 to 1, and (2) the voltage applied to the bridge must be substantially increased to obtain definite galvanometer action. The result is that an increase in the supply voltage increases the power dissipation (heat) of the bridge resistors. The change in resistance RB, because of the heat, is sufficient to produce an appreciable error. A Kelvin bridge is recommended for measuring resistances lower than 1 ohm. An electronic multimeter is recommended for the indicating device in bridges used for the measurement of very high resistances. One of the most elementary precautions concerning the use of a bridge, when measuring low resistance, is to tighten the binding posts securely so that the contact resistance between the binding posts and the resistance to be measured is minimum. Leakage paths between the resistor leads along the outside surface of the resistor body must be avoided when resistances greater than 0.1 megohm are measured. Search for defective solder joints or broken strands in stranded wire leads; these defects can cause erratic galvanometer indications. In those cases where wire leads must be used to reach from the resistance under test to the bridge terminals, measure the ohmic value of those leads prior to further measurements. Q.3 How does the supply voltage affect the accuracy of Wheatstone bridge measurements? Kelvin Bridge It is often necessary to make rapid measurements of low resistances, such as samples of wire or low values of meter shunt resistors. A frequently used instrument that is capable of good precision is the Kelvin bridge, shown in figure 3-1. Note the similarity between this and the Wheatstone bridge. Two additional resistances, R1 and R2, are connected in series and shunted across resistance R, which is the circuit resistance existing between the standard and unknown resistances, RS and RX, respectively. In performing the adjustment for balance, you must make the ratio of R1 to R2 equal to the ratio of RA to RB. When this is done, the unknown resistance can be computed in the same manner as that for the Wheatstone bridge, because resistance R is effectively eliminated. In using a Kelvin bridge, you must follow precautions similar to those given for the Wheatstone bridge. A rheostat is usually placed in series with the battery so that bridge current can be conveniently limited to the maximum current allowable. This value of current, which affects the sensitivity of the bridge, is determined by the largest amount of heat that can be sustained by the bridge resistances without causing a change in their values. All connections must be firm and electrically perfect so that contact resistances are held to a minimum. The use of point and knife-edge clamps is recommended. Commercially manufactured Kelvin bridges have accuracies of approximately 2% for resistance ranges from 0.001 ohm to 25 ohms. Q.4 Kelvin bridges are well suited for what type of measurements? Resistance-Ratio Bridge The resistance-ratio bridge, shown in figure 3-1, may be used to measure capacitance, inductance, or resistance so long as the electronic part to be measured is compared with a similar standard. The measurement of the value of a capacitor must be made in terms of another capacitor of known characteristics, termed the STANDARD CAPACITOR. The same requirement is necessary for an inductance measurement. The standard of comparison is designated as XX, and the losses of the standard are represented as RX. If you experience difficulty in obtaining a balanced bridge condition, insert additional resistance in series with branch S of the bridge. This adjustment becomes necessary because the Q of the unknown capacitor or inductor in branch X is higher than the comparable Q of the standard in branch S. Schering Bridge The Schering bridge, shown in figure 3-1, is a commonly used type of bridge for the measurement of capacitors and dielectric losses. The Q of a capacitor is defined as the reciprocal of the dissipation factor, which is the ratio of the capacitor's dielectric constant to its conductivity at a given frequency. Accordingly, capacitor Q is determined by the frequency used to conduct the measurement and the value of the capacitor, CB, required to obtain bridge balance. The accuracy of this type of bridge is excellent, about 2% for dissipation factors ranging from 0.00002 to 0.6. Typical accuracies for capacitive reactances in the range of 100 picofarads to 1 microfarad are 0.2%. Hay Bridge The Hay bridge, shown in figure 3-1, is used for the measurement of inductance and the Q of the inductor. It is interesting to note that this type of bridge measures inductance by comparing it with a standard capacitor of known characteristics. This arrangement provides the advantage of a wide measurement range with the minimum use of electronic parts as comparison standards. A typical range of values that can be measured with the Hay bridge is from 1 microhenry to 100 henries. The accuracy of the measurements made with this bridge is about 2%. The frequency used in conducting the inductance measurement must be taken into account because of the series reactance of capacitor CB. The loss factor of the inductor under test is balanced in terms of the Q of the inductor. The Hay bridge, then, is used for measurement of inductances having a Q greater than 10. For instance, a Q of 10 gives a calibration error of 1%, whereas a Q of 30 gives a calibration error of 0.1%. Q.5 When you are testing an inductor with a Hay bridge, the characteristics of the
inductor are compared with what type of device? Maxwell Bridge The Maxwell bridge, shown in figure 3-1, is used for the measurement of inductance and inductive Q. This bridge is similar to the Hay bridge because it also measures inductance by comparison with a standard capacitor of known characteristics. Notice, in particular, that capacitor CB is connected in parallel with resistor RB. In connection with this difference, the requirement of an accurately known frequency is removed. This bridge circuit is employed for measuring the inductance of inductors having large losses; i.e., low Q. The range of this type of instrument is much greater than that of the Hay bridge; values ranging from 1 microhenry to 1,000 henries are measurable, with an error of only 2%. VECTOR BRIDGES The basic bridges described up to now determined the resistive and reactive components of the unknown impedance; however, the vector bridge indicates the magnitude and phase angle. Typically, vector bridges require two null readings. Consider the basic bridge circuit of figure 3-5. The magnitude of the unknown impedance (ZX) is determined by the voltages applied across R and ZX and to the bases of emitter followers Q1 and Q2, which bias the balanced rectifiers, CR1 and CR2. Resistors A and B are equal in value. When R is adjusted to equal ZX, the voltages between points 1 and 2 and between points 1 and 4 are equal in magnitude, and the vtvm will indicate 0 volts. Figure 3-5. - Typical vector-bridge configuration (amplitude).
The absolute value of ZX is determined from the dial calibration of R. Without altering the amplitude balance, you reconnect the external circuits as shown in figure 3-6. Note that the voltage between points 1 and 3 is being compared to the voltage between points 1 and 2. Potentiometer R, calibrated in degrees, is adjusted for a null indication on the vtvm; and the phase angle is read directly. If ZX is purely resistive, the voltage between points 1 and 3 will be zero and the setting of R will be 0 volts. If ZX is purely reactive (capacitive or inductive), the setting of R will be at maximum voltage. For phase angles between 0 and 90, the scale of R may be calibrated directly in degrees. The sign of the phase angle can be determined by changing the signal frequency slightly and observing the change in impedance. The presence of harmonics in the signal input will severely hamper the measurements. If a pure frequency source is not available, suitable low-pass filters will have to be employed in the output leads from the bridge. Figure 3-6. - Typical vector-bridge configuration (phase).
CONSTANT-CURRENT, IMPEDANCE-MEASURING TECHNIQUE This technique employs an oscillator circuit and a vtvm, as shown in figure 3-7. Figure 3-7. - Constant-current, impedance-measuring method.
A large value of resistance, R, is selected so that IC is virtually independent of the range of ZX to be measured. Thus, ICZX represents the value of voltage measured by the vtvm. If R is chosen so that the voltage drop across ZX corresponds to a full-scale reading on the vtvm, a direct reading impedance meter is realized. For example, assume that the audio oscillator open-circuit voltage is 10 volts (rms) and that the full-scale reading of the vtvm is 0.05 volt. If you want to measure ZX values ranging up to a maximum of 5,000 ohms, you should use a 1-megohm resistor for R. This will result in a full-scale, 0.05-volt deflection. An oscillator that does not produce harmonics should be used. IMPEDANCE-ANGLE METER Like vector bridges, impedance-angle meters determine an unknown impedance in terms of magnitude and phase angle. However, a non-bridge technique is used. The simplified circuit of a commercial instrument is shown in figure 3-8. With switches S1 and S2 at the BAL position, the variable standard resistor, R, is adjusted until the balanced rectifier outputs of Q1 and Q2 are equal (indicated by a null in the deflection of the voltmeter connected between the emitters of Q3 and Q4). The dial setting of R gives the value of ZX. For phase angle determination, the circuit is switched to CAL and the input voltage is adjusted for full-scale voltmeter deflection. The circuit is then switched to PHASE; thus, the paralleled outputs of Q1 and Q2 are applied to rectifier CR1 only. With S2 in the phase position, there is no input to the base of Q4. If Z is purely resistive, the outputs of Q1 and Q2 cancel, and the voltmeter indicates zero deflection. For a complex impedance, the base of Q3 will be unbalanced with respect to the base of Q4; and the voltmeter deflection, calibrated in degrees, determines the phase angle of the unknown impedance. Typical commercial impedance angle meters, operating at 2 MHz, are accurate to within 4% for impedances of from 10 to 500 ohms. Figure 3-8. - Impedance-angle meter.
Q.6 What do impedance-angle meters and vector bridges have in common? |
 
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