The processes described next include not only the steps that you, the baker, perform, but also the processes that take place within the dough as a result of your action.  When actually preparing bread, you should always follow the steps and procedures in the Armed Forces Recipe Service (AFRS).

MIXING.-After you select and weigh or measure the necessary ingredients, the next important step is mixing. Dough may be mixed by hand, but an electric mixer or a bread-dough machine will make the job easier.

Dough Temperatures During Mixing.Temperature has a definite influence on the function of yeast and its ability to condition a dough properly to produce a quality bread. The desired dough temperature (DDT) is obtained from the recipe card.

The temperature of the dough can be regulated by considering all the factors that will influence the temperature of the dough and then using water at a temperature that will offset the adverse temperatures. Any desired temperature of the dough when it leaves the mixer may be obtained by a rather simple calculation that first determines the friction factor (temperature rise induced by mixing) and may then be used at all times when the same mixer and the same weight of dough are used.

Determine the friction factor by competing the following steps:

1. Add the temperature of the room, the temperature of the flour, and the temperature of the water.

2. Multiply the temperature of the mixed sample dough by 3.

3. Subtract the first answer from the second answer.

For example:

Adjusting the temperature of the water used in the dough will control the temperature of the dough. To determine the desired water temperature you add the temperature of the room, the temperature of the flour, and the friction factor and subtract this total from the DDT multiplied by 3. You will then have the desired water temperature. For example:

The individual recipe will indicate the temperature of the water to be used in the mixing process, By following the procedures just discussed, and using a thermometer to assure the proper temperature of water being used, the final mixed dough temperature will be that which was desired.

Mixing Operation.- The mixing operation accomplishes two functions. First, thorough mixing distributes the ingredients evenly. Secondly, it stretches the dough until the gluten is fully developed and distributed.

In the early stages of the mixing process, water wets the flour and the dry ingredients. At this stage, the dough will be rather wet and lumpy. As the mixing progresses, the flour continues to take up liquid and the dough becomes moderately firm.

When you are using high-speed mixers, the dough will become firm after several minutes of mixing, but the dough has no stretching characteristic. As mixing continues, the dough begins to bond and becomes more elastic. The lumpiness disappears and the dough becomes more firm as the flour picks up more moisture. At this stage, the dough is rather sticky and sticks to the mixer bowl quite easily. Next, the dough becomes less sticky and more elastic. When this happens, the back of the bowl begins to be cleared of dough and eventually becomes completely clear. At this time you should use careful judgment not to allow the mixing to progress too far or the dough will breakdown to a point where it loses elasticity and becomes sticky and runny. There is no rule governing the mixing time for dough other than the feel and appearance of the dough. When the mixing process is completed, the temperature of the dough should range between 78F and 82F.

FERMENTATION.- After the mixing operation, the dough is either left in the mixing bowl or placed in a dough trough to ferment.

Fermentation is the chemical change that takes place when yeast (or other leavening agent) in the bread releases carbon dioxide gas, causing the dough to rise. The fermentation period is the time that elapses between the mixing of the dough and the time the yeast is killed by the oven heat. The correct temperature for the dough during fermentation is indicated on the recipe card. A higher temperature will cause the growth of undesirable bacteria (wild yeast) and excessive acidity, which will result in a coarse-grained bread of poor flavor.

The length of the fermentation period depends on the amount of yeast used, the strength of the flour, and the temperature during fermentation. Too much yeast and higher temperatures than those designated cause the dough to rise too fast. Insufficiently fermented or conditioned dough is called "young dough" while that which has fermented too long is known as "old dough."

PUNCHING.- Punching the dough after it rises develops the gluten and also redistributes the yeast cells. The temperature of the dough is equalized, and some of the carbon dioxide gas is forced out. Yeast dough is ready for punching when it is light and approximately double in size. To test the dough to determine if it is ready for punching, press the dough lightly with a fingertip. If the impression closes up immediately, the dough is not ready. If the impression recedes slightly, it is ready to be punched or folded. The dough should then be punched.

To punch the dough you should use both hands and punch the dough through the center, going from end to end of the dough trough. Then, use both hands to grasp one side of the dough and pull it on top, once again working from end to end of the dough trough. To punch dough in a mixing bowl, punch the center, fold sides into the center, then turn completely over. After the dough has rested for approximately 30 minutes, it should be taken from the bowl or trough to the bench for makeup.

DOUGH MAKEUP.- The dough is divided into uniform pieces of the desired weight. When you are dividing the dough by hand, cut off the dough with the dough scraper and weigh the dough on a scale. Use the scraper to add or remove dough until the desired weight is obtained. This process is referred to as scaling. In a machine-operated bakeshop, the baker scales the pieces by machine, making adjustments so that the pieces will be the desired weight.

ROUNDING THE DOUGH.- After scaling, the dough is rounded by tucking the raw edges and forming a smooth round ball. This process seals the raw edges that are left after the dough is divided.

INTERMEDIATE PROOFING.- The intermediate proofing period is a stage when the rounded piece of dough is allowed to rest between the time it is divided and rounded and the time it is formed for panning. The intermediate proofing period should be just long enough for a piece of dough to recover from being divided and rounded. The dough should be loose enough so that it can be easily molded. This requires from 12 to 15 minutes, depending on the dough and the conditions of the room.

Some of the advantages of rounding and giving the dough intermediate proof are it achieves uniform shape, facilitates panning, makes texture uniform, stretches gluten slowly, expels excess gas, and forms skin on surface of dough.

MOLDING AND PANNING.- The pieces of dough are shaped so that they can rise in the pan and form a shaped loaf of bread. Use the following steps in hand molding:

1.  Place each piece of dough on the board, top side down. Use as little dusting flour as possible.

2. Press the gas out of the dough and pull lengthwise carefully, shaping the dough into an oblong loaf about the length of a finished loaf of bread.

3. Flatten the dough with your hands or with a rolling pin.

4.  Shape the dough by folding in the ends to form a rectangle.

5.  Fold the dough lengthwise to the center and seal by firm finger pressure.

6.  Fold over the other half of the dough and press for additional seal.

7. Roll the dough to complete the sealing and molding of the loaf.

After the dough is molded into a loaf, place it in a lightly greased pan. Each loaf should be placed so that the molding seam is on the bottom, and the loaf should be long enough to reach the ends of the pan.  figure  - provides an example of the molding and shaping of dough into a loaf.

PAN GREASING.- The primary purpose of lightly greasing the bread pan is to prevent the bread from sticking when it is removed. Too much grease on the pan surface can seriously affect the proofing, baking, and slicing of the bread.

PAN PROOFING.- After shaping and panning, loaves should be placed in a properly controlled room or cabinet called the proof box or proof cabinet for the final proof or pan proof. Temperature of the cabinet should be maintained at 90F to 100F. During pan proofing, the action of the yeast is speeded up by the higher temperature and the gluten becomes more mellow and elastic.

To determine whether the loaf is properly proofed, touch it lightly with one fingertip and press in slightly. If the impression made by the tip of the finger remains, the loaf is proofed. If the imprint does not remain and fills out when the fingertip is removed, the loaf is still too compact and should be proofed more. Usually, 50 to 75 minutes is sufficient.

BAKING.- The final stage in bread production is to place the pans of dough in an oven that is heated to a temperature sufficient to heat the dough quickly (temperature specified on AFRS recipes) and to cause the carbon dioxide of the dough to expand, thereby greatly increasing the size of the dough. The oven

Figure 8-1.-Molding and shaping bread dough.

temperature also vaporizes moisture on the surface of the bread and ultimately causes caramelization of the sugars, starches, and other ingredients that make up the exposed dough surface. The oven temperature and the time required to bake a loaf of bread will vary, depending on several factors. When using convection ovens, follow the operating manual instructions or use the AFRS guideline card for convection ovens. Baking time is shorter and temperature is lower in a convection oven than in a conventional oven. Remember that some bread recipes will contain convection oven information as a note.

Bread is the end product of a long line of chemical and physical reactions. If the loaf is removed from the oven before these changes occur, no matter what crust color is obtained, the loaf will lack desirable qualities. Color and thickness of crust depend on the length of time the loaf is subjected to oven temperature and on the concentration of sugars. Aroma of underbaked bread is "green," lacking the full-scale, delicious fragrance characteristic of freshly baked bread. If sufficiently underbaked, the loaf sides will collapse and proper slicing is not possible.

The oven temperature may be controlled for the purpose of influencing bread character in other ways than just the color.  A low oven temperature tends to open the grain of the loaf. If too high a temperature is used, the loaf may burst in a rather violent manner, usually along the sides, that results in a misshapen loaf.

A properly baked loaf of bread sounds hollow when tapped. Remove the baked loaves of bread from pans and cool on racks in areas free from drafts. Bread will dry out more quickly if the air is either too warm or too dry.

COOLING.- After the bread is done, remove the loaves from the pans and place them on racks to cool, making sure there is at least a 1-inch space between loaves. Cooling usually takes from 1 1/2 to 2 hours. Bread should not be covered while it is warm STORING AND SERVING.- Bread should be stored at cool room temperature under conditions where it will not dry out. If wrapped in plastic bags that are closed with twisters, bread can be stored for up to 96 hours in a cool room. If the room is hot and humid, it may be necessary to store the bread under refrigeration to prevent mold from forming. Refrigeration is not ideal, however, for extended storage because bread stales more rapidly under refrigeration than it does at room temperature.  This staling makes the bread firm and the crumb becomes coarse and hard. Bread may be held for extended periods if frozen in plastic wrap or bags. If freezer storage is impractical, bread quality is best maintained by baking in quantities that will be consumed within 48 hours.

The bread storage should be arranged so that the older bread always can be used first. Sliced bread left over from a previous meal can be thoroughly dried and used for bread crumbs, bread pudding, or crouton preparation.

SHORT-TIME FORMULA.- This formula was developed to meet a critical need aboard Navy ships with limited bakery space.  The short-time formula eliminates both the intermediate proof and the final loaf-molding operation. This modified sponge-type dough produces a good loaf of bread.

More importantly, ships without production equipment can produce bread within 2 to 2 1/2 hours. In addition to eliminating the 8- to 10-minute intermediate proof, the baker can roll the rounded pieces into a sausage shape and pan-one person being able to roll and pan an average of 20 per minute. Hot rolls and variations may be prepared using the short-time formula. Follow the AFRS for best results.

A room temperature of 80F should be maintained to assure the desired finished product. Any increase in the bakeshop temperature will, of course, reduce the fermentation time.  Because of the absence of fermentation rooms aboard ship, this control is strictly dependent on the baker's skill and knowledge in determining the readiness of the dough. Mixing time will not change, however, as the 10-minute periods appear to be optimum for proper dough development under practically all conditions.